A new wave of "everyday feminism" is spreading through China's cities, sidestepping the crackdown that killed an earlier wave of feminist activism and complicating the Communist Party's efforts to reshape traditional family values.
The phenomenon has emerged in unexpected ways, including the sudden popularity of a Japanese sociologist named Chizuko Ueno.
Though virtually unknown in China a few years ago, Ms. Ueno's books, dissecting the disadvantages faced by women in Japan, have recently become a hit in China and have collectively sold more than a million copies in the country. This widespread attention has made her one of the most popular writers in China and a member of the closely watched "Author of the Year" list.
The surge in interest in feminism is also reflected in the fast-growing Chinese podcasting scene. According to a recent online ranking, 10 of the 40 most popular podcasts spend a lot of time examining the place of women in society. Another program, run by a man known for his advocacy of a patriarchal society, is attracting new listeners despite being blocked inside China.
The growing focus on women's issues is also reflected in the flourishing of women's social groups that are keen on activities as diverse as experimental theatre and software coding, as well as women's life choices. Hao Yanan, a 34-year-old language teacher, for example, chose to leave her longtime boyfriend in 2020 and move abroad to pursue her career, despite intense social pressure to stay in her hometown and get married.
Hao says she used to think women had no real place in society. Now, she believes women can build their own communities.


Chizuko Ueno, a Japanese sociologist, said that being a foreigner and writing about foreign affairs helped her escape the harshest censorship that has shaped the Chinese book industry.

The trend comes amid controversy over how women are treated in Chinese society. Last year, a string of high-profile incidents of violence against women sparked a nationwide outcry and resentment over the government's slow response.
The trend also comes against the backdrop of the Communist Party's demonstrated declining tolerance for women's rights activism, despite the fact that gender equality was enshrined in the Chinese constitution as early as 1954. In 2015, under pressure from a small but influential group of feminists, China passed a landmark anti-domestic violence law.
Since then, however, the Chinese government has come to view the feminist movement as being driven by hostile foreign forces and has effectively curtailed their activism through a years-long crackdown that has included detaining activists and blocking their social media accounts. Huang Xueqin, an independent journalist who helped expose one of China's first #MeToo allegations, went on trial last month on charges of inciting subversion of state power after two years in detention.
The frustration of many women has in turn spawned a new wave of feminism that is quieter, more diffuse, and more personal. That makes it harder for the government to clamp down, gender scholars and activists say.
"Everyday feminism has allowed the feminist movement in China to survive the confrontation," said Yige Dong, a sociologist at the State University of New York at Buffalo.
In the long run, everyday feminism is likely to continue to annoy the Communist Party because it focuses on private choices like marriage and childbearing, which are central elements of the demographic issues that China's leaders are eager to address.


Zhou Xiaoxuan is greeted by supporters as she arrives at a court in Beijing in December 2020 in connection with her case against a CCTV anchor.

Zhou Xiaoxuan, an activist in Beijing, said that now, when women want to fight back, they realize there really isn't much they can do other than stay unmarried and infertile. Ms. Zhou had filed a lawsuit against a well-known CCTV anchor that was dismissed last year.
Ms. Ueno embodies the evolution of feminism in China, and at the same time helps define it, Ms. Zhou said. In 2019, Chikako Ueno gained a lot of attention on Chinese social media platforms after she said in a speech to new students at the University of Tokyo that society gives less back to disadvantaged groups, including women, regardless of whether they work hard or not.
The talk sparked huge interest in Ueno's work, which deals with topics such as emotion, family and the degradation of women. Her collection of letters with a young female writer topped the annual book list on Douban, a popular review platform in China.
Ms. Ueno, a professor emeritus at the University of Tokyo, pointed out that China has a large number of young, educated women who grew up during China's market-oriented economy. Previously, states could mandate more gender equality, she said, but competition in the market economy has left more women facing pay and hiring gaps between men and women.
"They are starting to experience more gender discrimination than before," Ms. Ueno said. "So it brings the situation of Chinese women closer to that of Japanese women."
Writing about foreign things as a foreigner has helped her escape the harshest censorship that has shaped the Chinese book industry, she said.


In 2019, a speech by Chizuko Ueno went viral, sparking interest in her work in China.

Hao, a language teacher, said she first came across Ueno's work at a reading in 2020 and was amazed at how the sociologist revealed the mechanics of a male-dominated society.
The books "expose a lot of lies that men invent for their own benefit," Hao said. Her boyfriend at the time called the book club a women's cult, but she was not deterred.
Hao and many other Chinese women who have been drawn to Ueno's work have also begun to follow podcasts that explore specific issues facing women in China. One of the most popular, and more radical, podcasts is called "Seahorse Planet," hosted by a former Chinese journalist based in Berlin.
Seahorses, in the name of the planet Seahorse, are one of the few animals in which males give birth. Haima Planet has attracted a sizable audience by attacking some pillars of traditional Chinese culture. It encourages women to rebel against Chinese filial piety, labeling those who unconditionally support traditional family values as "marriage donkeys."
Haimi Planet was banned in China in 2021, shortly after a show questioning the heterosexuality of society attracted 700,000 listeners. But even after the censorship, the planet has remained relevant, with an audience of 500 people gathering in Berlin in May for an offline gathering.


In this photo provided by Planet Seahorse, listeners gather in Berlin in May to celebrate the podcast's fifth anniversary.

Qin Liwen, the director of Seahorse Planet, says she focuses on personal issues facing women rather than government policies, and believes misogyny is rooted in the culture.
In a totalitarian state, directing resistance against the government makes sense, but it has limited meaning, Ms. Qin said. She said inequality between men and women stems from everyday life, from family and personal relationships.
Hao says listening to stories of powerful women pursuing their dreams on the planet Haima has given her the courage to live the life she wants.
"If they can do it, so can I," says Hao. Hao moved first to England and then to Latin America. She said she no longer believed in marriage or procreation choices.
Others in the audience also pushed back against conventional wisdom in less dramatic ways. A single mother in western China said the show made her determined to escape a toxic relationship. Another listener said she got into the habit of paying attention to female film directors and making appointments with female dentists.


Some local governments in China have begun offering cash incentives to couples who get married or have a second or third child.

Some educated urban women are skeptical about the role they are being asked to play in society at a time when the government is trying to reverse historic declines in birth rates and the working-age population.
Earlier this year, the official All-China Women's Federation submitted a proposal to counter the shift in traditional attitudes toward marriage by further strengthening publicity and guidance and implementing supportive policies to build a new marriage culture that matches the encouragement of marriage and childbearing. Some local governments in China have begun offering cash incentives to couples who get married or have a second or third child.


Books and podcasts, she says, made her a feminist and encouraged her to get out of China.

Security authorities have kept a close eye on women's gatherings in bars and bookstores, activists say, and feminists are finding it increasingly difficult to organize book clubs and film screenings.
But some women are finding ways to connect with each other.
One Haima listener helped create a community of all-female software professionals in China, hoping to combat what she said was a gender imbalance eroding the tech field.
Theater critic Wang Yinjie held an experimental stage event in the eastern city of Hangzhou to encourage women to liberate themselves through physical movement.
'You have to know yourself in order to express yourself and be free of ideological control,' Wang says. According to Wang, there's not much we can change, but we can start by looking at our own bodies.